A ride for everyone? Unveiling the use and impacts of ride-hailing services across income levels in Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Abstract

Over the past decade, ride-hailing (RH) services have expanded rapidly worldwide, driven by advances in information and communication technology (ICT). Platforms such as Uber, Grab, and Gojek offer flexible, cost-effective transport alternatives via smartphone apps, using privately owned vehicles rather than licensed taxis. While in many Western countries RH is car-based, in Indonesia motorcycle-based ride-hailing (RH MC) is more popular, due to the high rate of motorcycle ownership in Southeast Asia. Indonesian RH platforms also operate as “super-apps,” integrating passenger transport with services such as food delivery and goods courier, often using the same driver and vehicle. Despite their popularity, RH’s impacts on mobility and social equity remain unclear, particularly for vulnerable populations who may face barriers due to limited smartphone, internet, or e-payment access. This study examines RH usage in Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia, focusing on differences across income levels and with special attention to individuals living in poverty. It explores (1) RH travel patterns and user characteristics, (2) impacts on transport poverty and travel satisfaction, and (3) the role of RH super-apps in shaping mobility and consumption. First, by combining trip characteristics (purpose, duration, frequency) with socio-demographic, household, and attitudinal factors, the analysis identified six distinct RH travel pattern clusters. Higher-income individuals exhibit more diverse patterns and frequent RH use, while lower-income groups (especially those living in poverty) use RH mainly for short, low-cost weekend trips for work, commuting, or recreation. This pattern often reflects economic necessity, such as weekend income-generating activities. Second, the study investigates RH’s effects on transport poverty (a concept often examined in Global North contexts) and travel satisfaction. Findings show that RH MC enhances mobility for those without private vehicles, reducing transport poverty, particularly for low-income users. While affordability remains a barrier, individuals living in poverty report fewer perceived accessibility constraints, possibly due to lower mobility needs. Contrary to assumptions, this group also reports high travel satisfaction, especially when services are perceived as easy to access. These results highlight the need to examine transport poverty and satisfaction from a multidimensional perspective. Third, the research explores RH super-apps’ integration of food delivery and passenger transport, revealing complementary relationships between eating-out frequency and food delivery use. This suggests that RH super-apps create a digital mobility-consumption ecosystem, where ICT-enabled services can influence both travel and consumption behaviors. The findings carry significant policy implications. To enhance equity, affordability measures such as subsidized fares, targeted discounts, or financial support for essential trips should be considered for low-income groups. Safety improvements for RH MC, including driver training, vehicle standards, and safety education, are also crucial. Integrating RH with public transport through Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) approaches can further improve accessibility. Finally, balanced regulations are needed to maximize RH’s benefits while mitigating negative impact such as congestion, pollution, and safety risks, including promoting electric RH vehicles. By highlighting how RH services are used across income groups and their potential to reduce transport poverty, this study offers valuable insights for policymakers aiming to create inclusive, efficient, and sustainable urban mobility systems.